Authors Christopher Peters Eike Falk Anderson Fotis Liarokapis Leigh McLoughlin Panagiotis Petridis Sara de Freitas
License CC-BY-3.0
The 10th International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage VAST - State of the Art Reports (2009)
M. Ashley and F. Liarokapis (Editors)
Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
Eike Falk Anderson1 , Leigh McLoughlin2 , Fotis Liarokapis1 , Christopher Peters1 , Panagiotis Petridis3 , Sara de Freitas3
1 InteractiveWorlds Applied Research Group (iWARG), Coventry University, United Kingdom
2 The National Centre for Computer Animation (NCCA), Bournemouth University, United Kingdom
3 Serious Games Institute (SGI), Coventry University, United Kingdom
Abstract
Although the widespread use of gaming for leisure purposes has been well documented, the use of games to support
cultural heritage purposes, such as historical teaching and learning, or for enhancing museum visits, has been less
well considered. The state-of-the-art in serious game technology is identical to that of the state-of-the-art in en-
tertainment games technology. As a result the field of serious heritage games concerns itself with recent advances
in computer games, real-time computer graphics, virtual and augmented reality and artificial intelligence. On the
other hand, the main strengths of serious gaming applications may be generalised as being in the areas of com-
munication, visual expression of information, collaboration mechanisms, interactivity and entertainment. In this
report, we will focus on the state-of-the-art with respect to the theories, methods and technologies used in serious
heritage games. We provide an overview of existing literature of relevance to the domain, discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of the described methods and point out unsolved problems and challenges. In addition, several case
studies illustrating the application of methods and technologies used in cultural heritage are presented.
Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): H.5.1 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: Mul-
timedia Information Systems—Artificial, augmented, and virtual realities I.2.1 [Artificial Intelligence]: Applica-
tions and Expert Systems—Games K.3.1 [Computers and Education]: Computer Uses in Education—Computer-
assisted instruction K.8.0 [Personal Computing]: General—Games
1. Introduction which exist within a cultural heritage context, reveal the po-
tential of these technologies to engage and motivate beyond
Computer games with complex virtual worlds for entertain- leisure time activities.
ment are enjoying widespread use and in recent years we
have witnessed the introduction of serious games, including The popularity of video games, especially among younger
the use of games to support cultural heritage purposes, such people, makes them an ideal medium for educational pur-
as historical teaching and learning, or for enhancing museum poses [ML87]. As a result there has been a trend towards
visits. At the same time, game development has been fuelled the development of more complex, serious games, which are
by dramatic advances in computer graphics hardware – in informed by both pedagogical and game-like, fun elements.
turn driven by the success of video games – which have led The term ‘serious games’ describes a relatively new concept,
to a rise in the quality of real-time computer graphics and in- computer games that are not limited to the aim of providing
creased realism in computer games. The successes of games entertainment, that allow for collaborative use of 3D spaces
that cross over into educational gaming – or serious gam- that are used for learning and educational purposes in a num-
ing, such as the popular Civilization (although “abstract and ber of application domains. Typical examples are game en-
ahistorical” [App06]) and Total War series of entertainment gines and online virtual environments that have been used to
games, as well as games and virtual worlds that are specif- design and implement games for non-leisure purposes, e.g.
ically developed for educational purposes, such as Revolu- in military and health training [Mac02, Zyd05], as well as
tion [Fra06] and the Virtual Egyptian Temple [JH05], all of cultural heritage (Figure 1).
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported Li-
cense. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
tural heritage serious games and illustrating challenges in
their application.
2. The State-of-the-Art in Serious Games
The state-of-the-art in Serious Game technology is identical
to the state-of-the-art in Entertainment Games technology.
Both types of computer game share the same infrastructure,
or as Zyda notes, “applying games and simulations technol-
ogy to non-entertainment domains results in serious games”
[Zyd05]. The main strengths of serious gaming applications
Figure 1: Experiencing ‘Rome Reborn’ as a game. may be generalised as being in the areas of communication,
visual expression of information, collaboration mechanisms,
interactivity and entertainment.
Over the past decade there have been tremendous ad-
This report explores the wider research area of interac-
vances in entertainment computing technology, and “today’s
tive games and related applications with a cultural heritage
games are exponentially more powerful and sophisticated
context and the technologies used for their creation. Mod-
than those of just three or four years ago” [Saw02], which
ern games technologies (and related optimisations [CD09])
in turn is leading to very high consumer expectations. Real-
allow the real-time interactive visualisation/simulation of re-
time computer graphics can achieve near-photorealism and
alistic virtual heritage scenarios, such as reconstructions of
virtual game worlds are usually populated with considerable
ancient sites and monuments, while using relatively basic
amounts of high quality content, creating a rich user experi-
consumer machines. Our aim is to provide an overview of
ence. In this respect, Zyda [Zyd05] argues that while peda-
the methods and techniques used in entertainment games
gogy is an implicit component of a serious game, it should
that can potentially be deployed in cultural heritage contexts,
be secondary to entertainment, meaning that a serious game
as demonstrated by particular games and applications, thus
that is not ‘fun’ to play would be useless, independent of its
making cultural heritage much more accessible.
pedagogical content or value. This view is not shared by all,
Serious games can exist in the form of mobile applica- and there exist design methodologies for the development
tions, simple web-based solutions, more complex ‘mashup’ of games incorporating pedagogic elements, such as the four
applications (e.g. combinations of social software applica- dimensional framework [dFO06], which outlines the central-
tions) or in the shape of ‘grown-up’ computer games, em- ity of four elements that can be used as design and evaluation
ploying modern games technologies to create virtual worlds criteria for the creation of serious games. In any case there is
for interactive experiences that may include socially based a need for the game developers and instructional designers
interactions, as well as mixed reality games that combine to work together to develop engaging and motivating serious
real and virtual interactions, all of which can be used in games for the future.
cultural heritage applications. This state-of-the-art report fo-
cusses on the serious games technologies that can be found
in modern computer games. 2.1. Online Virtual Environments
The report is divided into two main sections: There is a great range of different online virtual world ap-
plications – at least 80 virtual world applications existed
• The first of these is concerned with the area of cultural in 2008 with another 100 planned for 2009. The field is
heritage and serious games, which integrate the core tech- extensive, not just in terms of potential use for education
nologies of computer games with principled pedagogical and training but also in terms of actual usage and uptake
methodologies. This is explored in a range of characteris- by users, which is amply illustrated by the online platform
tic case studies, which include entertainment games that Second Life (Linden Labs), which currently has 13 million
can be used for non-leisure purposes as well as virtual registered accounts worldwide. The use of Second Life for
museums and educationally focused and designed cultural supporting seminar activities, lectures and other educational
heritage projects. purposes has been documented in a number of recent re-
• The second part investigates those computer games tech- ports and a wide range of examples of Second Life use by
nologies that are potentially useful for the creation of cul- UK universities has been documented [Kir08]. Online vir-
tural heritage games, such as real-time rendering tech- tual worlds provide excellent capabilities for creating ef-
niques, mixed reality technologies and subdomains of fective distance and online learning opportunities through
(game) artificial intelligence. This literature review in- the provision of unique support for distributed groups (on-
cludes discussions of strengths and weaknesses of the line chat, the use of avatars, document sharing etc.). This
most prominent methods, indicating potential uses for cul- benefit has so far been most exploited in business where
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
these tools have been used to support distributed or location- In order to investigate the efficacy of the Rome Reborn
independent working groups or communities [Jon05]. On- Project for learning, exploration, re-enactment and research
line virtual worlds in this way facilitate the development of of cultural and architectural aspects of ancient Rome a seri-
new collaborative models for bringing together subject mat- ous game is currently under development. In particular, the
ter experts and tutors from around the world, and in terms project aims at investigating the suitability of using this tech-
of learning communities are opening up opportunities for nology to support the archaeological exploration of histori-
learning in international cohorts where students from more cally accurate societal aspects of Rome’s life, with an em-
than one country or location can learn in mixed reality con- phasis on political, religious and artistic expressions.
texts including classroom and non-classroom based groups To achieve these objectives, the project will integrate four
(https://lg3d-wonderland.dev.java.net). Online vir- cutting-edge virtual world technologies with the Rome Re-
tual worlds also notably offer real opportunities for training, born model, the most detailed three-dimensional model of
rehearsing and role playing. Ancient Rome available. These technologies include:
• the Quest3D visualisation engine [God08]
2.2. Application to Cultural Heritage: Case Studies • Instinct(maker) artificial life engine (Toulouse University)
This section provides an overview of some of the most [SBLD04]
characteristic case studies in cultural heritage. In particular • ATOM Spoken Dialogue System
the case studies have been categorised into three types of (http://www.agilingua.com)
computer-game-like applications including: prototypes and • High resolution, motion captured characters and objects
demonstrators; virtual museums; and commercial historical from the period (Red Bedlam).
games. The use of the Instinct artificial life engine enables coher-
ent crowd animation and therefore the population of the city
2.2.1. Prototypes and Demonstrators
of Rome with behaviour driven virtual characters. These vir-
The use of visualisation and virtual reconstruction of tual characters with different behaviours can teach the player
ancient historical sites is not new, and a number of about different aspects of life in Rome (living conditions,
projects have used this approach to study crowd modelling politics, military) [SBLD04]. Agilingua ATOM’s dialogue
[ADG∗ 08, MHY∗ 07]. Several projects are using virtual re- management algorithm allows determining how the system
constructions in order to train and educate their users. Many will react: asking questions, making suggestions, and/or con-
of these systems have, however, never been released to the firming an answer.
wider public, and have only been used for academic studies.
This project aims to develop a researchers’ toolkit for al-
In the following section the most significant and promising
lowing archaeologists to test past and current hypotheses
of these are presented.
surrounding architecture, crowd behaviour, social interac-
tions, topography and urban planning and development, us-
ing Virtual Rome as a test-bed for reconstructions. By us-
ing such game the researches will be able to analyse the
impact of major events. For example, the use of this tech-
nique would allow researchers to analyse the impact of ma-
jor events, such as grain distribution or the influx of people
into the city . The experiences of residents and visitors as
they pass through and interact with the ancient city can also
be explored.
2.2.1.2. Ancient Pompeii
Pompeii was a Roman city, which was destroyed and com-
pletely buried in the first recorded eruption of the volcano
Figure 2: ‘Rome Reborn’ Serious Game.
Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD [PCSa, PCSb]. For this project
a model of ancient Pompeii was constructed and populated
2.2.1.1. Rome Reborn with avatars in order to simulate life in Pompeii in real-time.
The Rome Reborn project is the world’s largest digitisa- The main goal of this project was to simulate a crowd of
tion project and has been running for 15 years. The main virtual Romans exhibiting realistic behaviours in a recon-
aims of the project are to produce a high resolution version structed district of Pompeii [MHY∗ 07]. The virtual entities
of Rome at 320 AD (Figure 2), a lower resolution model can navigate freely in several buildings in the city model and
for creating a ‘mashup’ application with ‘Google Earth’ interact with their environment [ADG∗ 08].
(http://earth.google.com/rome/), and finally the col-
laborative mode of the model for use with virtual world ap- 2.2.1.3. Parthenon Project
plications and aimed primarily at education [Fri08]. The Parthenon Project is a short computer animation that
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Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
“visually reunites the Parthenon and its sculptural decora- of which houses an instance of the High Priest, a pedagogi-
tions” [Deb05]. The Parthenon itself is an ancient monu- cal agent. Each area of this virtual environment represents a
ment, completed in 437 BC, and stands in Athens while different feature from the architecture of that era.
many of its sculptural decorations reside in the collection of
The objective of the game is to explore the model and
the British Museum, London (UK). The project goals were
gather enough information to answer the questions asked
to create a virtual version of the Parthenon and its separated
by the priest (pedagogical agent). The game engine that this
sculptural elements so that they could be reunited in a virtual
system is based on is the Unreal Engine 2 (Figure 3) [JL05],
representation.
existing both as an Unreal Tournament 2004 game modifi-
The project involved capturing digital representations of cation [Wal07] for use at home, as well as in the form of a
the Parthenon structure and the separate sculptures, recom- Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE [CNSD∗ 92])
bining them and then rendering the results. The structure was system in a real museum.
scanned using a commercial laser range scanner, while the
sculptures were scanned using a custom 3D scanning system
that the team developed specifically for the project [Tch02].
The project made heavy use of image-based lighting tech-
niques, so that the structure could be relit under different
illumination conditions within the virtual representation. A
series of photographs were taken of the structure together
with illumination measurements of the scene’s lighting. An
inverse global illumination technique was then applied to
effectively ‘remove’ the lighting. The resulting “lighting-
independent model” [DTG∗ 04] could then be relit using any
lighting scheme desired [TSE∗ 04, DTG∗ 04].
Figure 3: New Kingdom Egyptian Temple game.
Although the Parthenon Project was originally an offline-
rendered animation, it has since been converted to work in
real-time [SM06, IS06]. The original Parthenon geometry 2.2.2.2. The Ancient Olympic Games
represented a large dataset consisting of 90-million polygons The Foundation of the Hellenic World has produced a num-
(after post-processing), which was reduced to 15-million for ber of gaming appliucations associated with the Olympic
the real-time version and displayed using dynamic level- Games in ancient Greece [GCP04]. For example, in the
of-detail techniques. Texture data consisted of 300MB and ‘Olympic Pottery Puzzle’ exhibit the user must re-assemble
had to be actively managed and compressed, while 2.1GB a number of ancient vases putting together pot shards. The
of compressed High-Dynamic-Range (HDR) sky maps were users are presented with a colour-coded skeleton of the ves-
reduced in a pre-processing step. The reduced HDR maps sels with the different colours showing the correct position
were used for lighting and the extracted sun position was of the pieces. They then try to select one piece at a time from
used to cast a shadow map. a heap and place it in the correct position on the vase. An-
other game is the ‘Feidias Workshop’ which is a highly in-
2.2.2. Virtual Museums teractive virtual experience taking place at the construction
site of the 15-meter-tall golden ivory statue of Zeus, one of
Modern interactive virtual museums using games technolo- the seven wonders of the ancient world. The visitors enter
gies [JC02, LV04] provide a means for the presentation of the two-storey-high workshop and come into sight of an ac-
digital representations for cultural heritage sites [EHML∗ 06] curate reconstruction of an unfinished version of the famous
that entertain and educate visitors [HCB∗ 01] in a much more statue of Zeus and walk among the sculptor’s tools, scaf-
engaging manner than was possible only a decade ago. A folding, benches, materials, and moulds used to construct it.
recent survey paper that examines all the technologies and They take the role of the sculptor’s assistants and actively
tools used in museums was recently published [SLKP09]. help finish the creation of the huge statue, by using virtual
Here we present several examples of this type of cultural tools to apply the necessary materials onto the statue, pro-
heritage serious game, including some virtual museums that cess the ivory and gold plates, apply them onto the wooden
can be visited in real-world museums. supporting core and add the finishing touches. Interaction is
achieved using the navigation wand of the Virtual Realiyy
2.2.2.1. Virtual Egyptian Temple (VR) system, onto which the various virtual tools are at-
This game depicts a hypothetical Virtual Egyptian Temple tached. Using these tools the user helps finish the work on
[JH05], which has no real-world equivalent. The temple em- the statue, learning about the procedures, materials and tech-
bodies all of the key features of a typical New Kingdom pe- niques applied for the creation of these marvellous statues.
riod Egyptian temple in a manner that an untrained audience The last example is the ‘Walk through Ancient Olympia’,
can understand. It is divided into four major areas, each one where the user, apart from visiting the historical site, learns
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Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
the game is to solve a puzzle by collecting medieval objects
that used to be located in and around the Priory Undercroft.
Each time a new object is found, the user is prompted to
answer a question related to the history of the site. A typ-
ical user-interaction might take the form of: “What did St.
George slay? – Hint: It is a mythical creature. – Answer: The
Dragon”, meaning that the user then has to find the Dragon.
Figure 4: Walk through Ancient Olympia [GCP04].
about the ancient games themselves by interacting with ath-
letes in the ancient game of pentathlon (Figure 4). The vis-
itors can wonder around and visit the buildings and learn Figure 5: Priory Undercroft – a Serious Game
their history and their function: the Heraion, the oldest mon-
umental building of the sanctuary dedicated to the goddess
Hera, the temple of Zeus, a model of a Doric peripteral tem- 2.2.3. Commercial Historical Games
ple with magnificent sculpted decoration, the Gymnasium, Commercial games with a cultural heritage theme are usu-
which was used for the training of javelin throwers, dis- ally of the ‘documentary game’ [Bur05b] genre that depict
cus throwers and runners, the Palaestra, where the wrestlers, real historical events (frequently wars and battles), which the
jumpers and boxers trained, the Leonidaion, which was human player can then partake in. These are games that were
where the official guests stayed, the Bouleuterion, where ath- primarily created for entertainment, but their historical ac-
letes, relatives and judges took a vow that they would up- curracy allows them to be used in educational settings as
held the rules of the Games, the Treasuries of various cities, well.
where valuable offerings were kept, the Philippeion, which
was dedicated by Philip II, king of Macedonia, after his vic- 2.2.3.1. History Line: 1914-1918
tory in the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC and the Stadium, An early representative of this type of game was History
where most of the events took place. Instead of just observ- Line: 1914-1918 (Blue Byte, 1992), an early turn-based
ing the games the visitors take place in them. They can pick strategy game depicting the events of the First World War
up the discus or the javelin and they try their abilities in The game was realised using the technology of the more
throwing them towards the far end of the stadium. Excited prominent game Battle Isle, providing players with a 2D top-
about the interaction they ask when they will be able to in- down view of the game world, divided into hexagons that
teract with the wrestler one on one. A role-playing model of could be occupied by military units, with the gameplay very
interaction with alternating roles was tried here with pretty much resembling traditional board-games.
good success as the visitors truly immersed in the environ-
ment wish they could participate in more games [GCP04]. The game’s historical context was introduced in a long
(animated) introduction, depicting the geo-political situation
of the period and the events leading up to the outbreak of
2.2.2.3. Virtual Priory Undercroft
war in 1914. In between battles the player is provided with
Located in the heart of Coventry, UK, the Priory Under-
additional information on concurrent events that shaped the
crofts are the remains of Coventry’s original Benedictine
course of the conflict, which is illustrated with animations
monastery, dissolved by Henry VIII. Although archaeolo-
and newspaper clippings from the period.
gists revealed the architectural structure of the cathedral, the
current site is not easily accessible for the public. Virtual Pri-
2.2.3.2. Great Battles of Rome
ory Undercroft offers a virtual exploration of the site in both
More recently a similar approach was used by the His-
online and offline configurations.
tory Channel’s Great Battles of Rome (Slitherine Strategies,
Furthermore, a first version of a serious game (Figure 5) 2007), another ‘documentary game’, which mixes interac-
has been developed at Coventry University, using the Object- tive 3D real-time tactical simulation of actual battles with
Oriented Graphics Rendering Engine (OGRE) [WM08]. The documentary information (Figure 6), including footage orig-
motivation is to raise the interest of children in the mu- inally produced for TV documentaries, that places the battles
seum, as well as cultural heritage in general. The aim of in their historical context.
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Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
types of hardware, including older systems, especially older
graphics cards (supporting the programmable Shader Model
2), but the highest visual fidelity is only achieved on re-
cent systems (Shader Model 3 graphics hardware) [Gar09].
If the hardware allows for this, shadows for added realism
in the virtual world are generated using Screen Space Ambi-
ent Occlusion [Mit07, BS08], making use of existing depth-
buffer information in rendered frames. Furthermore the vir-
tual world of the game is provided with realistic vegetation
generated by the popular middleware system SpeedTree (In-
teractive Data Visualization, Inc.), which “features realis-
tic tree models and proves to be able to visualise literally
thousands of trees in real-time” [FK04]. As a result the hu-
Figure 6: Great Battles of Rome.
man player is immersed in the historical setting, allowing the
player to re-live history.
2.2.3.3. Total War 3. The Technology of Cultural Heritage Serious Games
The most successful representatives of this type of histor-
Modern interactive virtual environments are usually imple-
ical game are the games of the Creative Assembly’s Total
mented using game engines, which provide the core technol-
War series, which provide a gameplay combination of turn-
ogy for the creation and control of the virtual world. A game
based strategy (for global events) and real-time tactics (for
engine is an open, extendable software system on which a
battles). Here, a historical setting is enriched with informa-
computer game or a similar application can be built. It pro-
tion about important events and developments that occurred
vides the generic infrastructure for game creation [Zyd05],
during the timeframe experienced by the player. While the
i.e. I/O (input/output) and resource/asset management facil-
free-form campaigns allow the game’s players to change the
ities. The possible components of game engines include, but
course of history, the games also include several independent
are not limited to: rendering engine, audio engine, physics
battle-scenarios with historical background information that
engine, animation engine.
depict real events and allow players to partake in moments
of historical significance.
3.1. Virtual World System Infrastructure
The use of up-to-date games technology for rendering, as
well as the use of highly detailed game assets that are reason- The shape that the infrastructure for a virtual environment
ably true to the historical context, enables a fairly realistic takes is dictated by a number of components, defined by
depiction of history. As a result, games from the Total War function rather than organisation, the exact selection of
series have been used to great effect in the visualisation of which determines the tasks that the underlying engine is suit-
armed conflicts in historical programmes produced for TV able for. A game engine does not provide data or functions
[War07]. that could be associated with any game or other application
of the game engine [ZDA03]. Furthermore, a game engine is
not just an API (Application Programming Interface), i.e. a
set of reusable components that can be transferred between
different games, but also provides a glue layer that connects
its component parts. It is this glue layer that sets a game en-
gine apart from an API, making it more than the sum of its
components and sub-systems.
Modern game engines constitute complex parallel sys-
tems that compete for limited computing resources [Blo04].
They “provide superior platforms for rendering multiple
views and coordinating real and simulated scenes as well
Figure 7: Reliving the battle of Brandywine Creek [McG06]. as supporting multiuser interaction” [LJ02], employing ad-
vanced graphics techniques to create virtual environments.
Anderson et al. [AEMC08] provide a discussion of sev-
The latest title in the series, Empire Total War (released in eral challenges and open problems regarding game engines,
March 2009), depicting events from the start of the 18th cen- which include the precise definition of the role of content
tury to the middle of the 19th century, makes use of some of creation tools in the game development process and as part
the latest developments in computer games technology (Fig- of game engines, as well as the identification of links be-
ure 7). The game’s renderer is scalable to support different tween game genres and game engine architecture, both of
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
which play a crucial role in the process of selecting an ap- categories, such as VR and augmented reality (AR), several
propriate game engine for a given project. of which are especially useful for cultural heritage applica-
tions, and which are presented in this section.
Frequently, the technology used for the development of
virtual environments, be they games for entertainment, se-
3.2.1. Mixed Reality Technologies
rious games or simulations, is limited by the development
budget. Modern entertainment computer games frequently In 1994, Milgram [MK94] tried to depict the relationship be-
require “a multimillion-dollar budget” [Ove04] that can tween VR and AR. To illustrate this he introduced two new
now rival the budgets of feature film productions, a signif- terms called Mixed Reality (MR), which is a type of VR but
icant proportion of which will be used for asset creation has a wider concept than AR, [TYK01] and Augmented Vir-
(such as 3D models and animations). Developers are usu- tuality (AV). On the left hand side of the Reality-Virtuality
ally faced with the choice of developing a proprietary in- continuum, there is the representation of the real world and
frastructure, i.e. their own game engine, or to use an ex- on the right hand side there is the ultimate synthetic envi-
isting engine for their virtual world application. Commer- ronment. MR stretches out in-between these environments
cially developed game engines are usually expensive, and and it can be divided into two sub-categories: AR and AV
while there are affordable solutions, such as the Torque game [MK94]. AR expands towards the real world and thus it is
engine which is favoured by independent developers and less synthetic than AV which expands towards virtual envi-
which has been successfully used in cultural heritage appli- ronments. To address the problem from another perspective
cations [LWH∗ 07, MSLV08], these generally provide fewer a further distinction has been made. This refers to all the ob-
features, thus potentially limiting their usefulness. If one of jects that form an AR environment: real objects and virtual
the project’s requirements is the use of highly realistic graph- objects. Real objects are these, which always exist no mat-
ics with a high degree of visual fidelity, this usually requires ter what the external conditions may be. On the other hand,
a recent high-end game engine, the most successful of which a virtual object depends on external factors but mimics ob-
usually come at a very high licensing fee. jects of reality. Three of the most interesting characteristics
between virtual and real objects are illustrated here.
There are alternatives, however, as several older commer-
cially developed engines have been released under Open The first and most obvious difference is that a virtual ob-
Source licences, such as the Quake 3 engine (id Tech 3) ject has to be viewed through a display device after it has
[ST08, WM08], making them easily accessible, and while been generated and then simulated. On the contrary, real ob-
they do not provide the features found in more recently pub- jects, since they exist in essence, can be viewed either di-
lished games, they nevertheless match the feature sets of the rectly or through a synthetic device. The second difference
cheaper commercial engines. Furthermore, there exist open concentrates on the quality of the viewed image that is gen-
source game engines such as the Nebula Device [RM03], or erated by using state-of-the-art technologies. More specifi-
engine components, such as OGRE [RM03, WM08] or ODE cally, virtual information cannot be sampled directly but can
(Open Dynamics Engine) [MW03], which are either com- be synthesised. Therefore, the quality of the resulting ob-
mercially developed or close to commercial quality, making ject may look real but this does not guarantee that the object
them a viable platform for the development of virtual worlds, is real. In addition, the virtual and real information can be
although they may lack the content creation tools that are distinguished depending on the luminosity of the location
frequently packaged with larger commercial engines. where it appears. Real images have some luminosity at the
location at which it appears to be located while virtual im-
Finally, there is the possibility of taking an existing game
ages do not have any at the location at which it appears. This
and modifying it for one’s own purposes, which many re-
definition includes direct viewing of a real object, as well
cent games allow users to do [Wal07, ST08]. This has the
as the image on the display screen of a non-directly viewed
benefit of small up-front costs, as the only requirement is
object. Examples of virtual images include holograms and
the purchase of a copy of the relevant game, combined
mirror images [MK94] .
with access to high-spec modern game engines, as well
as the content development tools that they contain. Ex- 3.2.2. Virtual Reality
amples for this are the use of the game Civilization III
for the cultural heritage game The History Game Canada Ivan Sutherland originally introduced the first Virtual Re-
(http://historycanadagame.com) or the use of the Un- ality (VR) system in the 1960s [Sut65]. Nowadays VR is
real Engine 2 [ST08] for the development of an affordable moving from the research laboratories to the working en-
CAVE [JL05], which has been used successfully in cultural vironment by replacing ergonomically limited HMD’s with
heritage applications [JH05]. projective displays (such as the well known CAVE and Re-
sponsive Workbench) as well as online VR communities. In
a typical VR system the user’s natural sensory information is
3.2. Virtual World User Interfaces
completely replaced with digital information. The user’s ex-
There are different types of interface that allow users to in- perience of a computer-simulated environment is called im-
teract with virtual worlds. These fall into several different mersion. As a result, VR systems can completely immerse a
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
user inside a synthetic environment by blocking all the sig- 3.2.3. Augmented Reality
nals of the real world. In addition, a VR simulated world
does not always have to obey all laws of nature. In immer- The concept of AR is the opposite of the closed world of
sive VR systems, the most common problems of VR systems virtual spaces [TYK99] since users can perceive both vir-
are of emotional and psychological nature including motion tual and real information. Most AR systems use more com-
sickness, nausea, and other symptoms, which are created by plex software approaches compared to VR systems. The ba-
the high degree of immersiveness of the users. sic theoretical principle is to superimpose digital informa-
tion directly into a user’s sensory perception [Fei02], rather
Moreover, internet technologies have the tremendous po- than replacing it with a completely synthetic environment as
tential of offering virtual visitors ubiquitous access via VR systems do. An interesting point is that both technolo-
the World Wide Web (WWW) to online virtual envi- gies may process and display the same digital information
ronments. Additionally, the increased efficiency of In- and often they make use of the same dedicated hardware.
ternet connections (i.e. ADSL/broadband) makes it pos- Although AR systems are influenced by the same factors the
sible to transmit significant media files relating to the amount of influence is much less than in VR since only a
artefacts of virtual museum exhibitions. The most popu- portion of the environment is virtual. However, there is still
lar technology for WWW visualisation includes Web3D a lot of research to be done in AR [Azu97] to measure accu-
which offers tools such as the Virtual Reality Modeling rately its effects on humans.
Language (VRML – http://www.web3d.org/x3d/vrml/) The requirements related to the development of AR ap-
and its successor X3D (http://www.web3d.org/x3d/), plications in the cultural heritage field have been well doc-
which can be used for the creation of an interac- umented [BAEB99, LSM08, SLKP09]. An interactive con-
tive virtual museum. Many cultural heritage applica- cept is the Meta-Museum visualised guide system based on
tions based on VRML have been developed for the AR, which tries to establish scenarios and provide a commu-
web [Gat00, PEHBP01, SM01]. Another 3D graphics for- nication environment between the real world and cyberspace
mat, is COLLAborative Design Activity (COLLADA – [MKN96]. Another AR system that could be used as an au-
https://collada.org/ which defines an open standard tomated tour guide in museums is the automated tour guide,
XML schema (http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema) for ex- which superimposes audio in the world based on the location
changing digital assets among various graphics software ap- of the user [Bed95]. There are many ways where archaeo-
plications that might otherwise store their assets in incom- logical sources can be used to provide a mobile AR system.
patible formats. One of the main advantages of COLLADA Some of the wide range of related applications includes the
is that is includes more advanced physics functionality such initial collection of data to the eventual dissemination of in-
as collision detection and friction (which Web3D does not formation [Rya00]. MARVINS is an AR assembly, initially
support). designed for mobile applications and can provide orienta-
tion and navigation possibilities in areas, such as science
In addition to these, there are more powerful museums, art museums and other historic or cultural sites.
technologies that have been used in museum en- Augmented information like video, audio and text is relayed
vironments, which include the OpenSceneGraph from a server via the transmitter-receiver to a head-mounted
(OSG) high performance 3D graphics toolkit display [SCFS00].
(http://www.openscenegraph.org/projects/osg)
and a variety of 3D game engines. OSG is a freely available In addition, a number of EU projects have been under-
(open source) multi-platform toolkit, used by museums taken in the field of virtual heritage. The SHAPE project
[CCF∗ 05, LGSB06] to generate more powerful VR appli- [HCB∗ 01] combined AR and archaeology to enhance the
cations, especially in terms of immersion and interactivity interaction of persons in public places like galleries and mu-
since it supports the integration of text, video, audio and seums by educating visitors about artefacts and their history.
3D scenes into a single 3D environment. An alternative The 3DMURALE project [CIG∗ 01] developed 3D multime-
to OpenSceneGraph, is OpenSG which is an open-source dia tools to record, reconstruct, encode and visualise archae-
scene graph system used to create real-time VR applications ological ruins in virtual reality using as a test case the an-
(http://www.opensg.org/) On the other hand, 3D game cient city of Sagalassos in Turkey. The Ename 974 project
engines are also very powerful and they provide superior [PCKS00] developed a non-intrusive interpretation system
visualisation and physics support. Both technologies (OSG to convert archaeological sites into open-air museums, called
and 3D game engines), compared to VRML and X3D, TimeScope-1 based on 3D computer technology originally
can provide very realistic and immersive museum envi- developed by IBM, called TimeFrame. ARCHEOGUIDE
ronments but they have two main drawbacks. First, they [SDS∗ 01] provides an interactive AR guide for the visual-
require advanced programming skills in order to design isation of archaeological sites based on mobile computing,
and implement custom applications. Secondly, they do not networking and 3D visualisation providing the users with a
have support for mobile devices such as PDAs and Third multi-modal interaction user interface. A similar project is
Generation mobile phones. LIFEPLUS [PPM∗ 02], which explores the potential of AR
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
so that users can experience a high degree of realistic inter- within games companies. They may then be progressively
active immersion by allowing the rendering of realistic 3D optimised for speed, or held back until the development of
simulations of virtual flora and fauna (humans, animals and faster hardware.
plants) in real-time
The primary reason for the proliferation of real-time
Moreover, AR can be applied successfully for gaming in graphics effects has been due to advances in low-cost graph-
cultural heritage. One of the earliest examples is the Virtual ics hardware that can be used in standard PCs or games
Showcase [BFSE01] which is an AR display device that has consoles. Modern graphics processing units (GPUs) are
the same form factor as a real showcase traditionally used for extremely powerful parallel processors and the graphics
museum exhibits and can be used for gaming. The potentials pipeline is becoming increasingly flexible. Through the use
of AR interfaces in museum environments and other cultural of programmable shaders, which are small programs that de-
heritage institutions [Lia07] as well as outdoor heritage sites fine and direct part of the rendering process, a wide variety of
[VIK∗ 02] have been also briefly explored for potential edu- graphical effects are now possible for inclusion in games and
cational applications. A more specific gaming example is the virtual environments, while there also exist a range of effects
MAGIC and TROC systems [RNBP04] which were based on that are currently possible but still too expensive for practical
a study of the tasks of archaeological fieldwork, interviews use beyond anything but the display of simple scenes.
and observations in Alexandria. That’s a mobile game and
The graphics pipeline used by modern graphics hard-
the players discover archaeological objects while moving.
ware renders geometry using rasterisation, where an object
Another cultural heritage AR application is the serious is drawn as triangles which undergo viewing transformations
game SUA that was part of the BIDAIATZERA project before they are converted directly into pixels. In contrast,
[LCM∗ 07]. This project takes the form of a play which ray-tracing generates a pixel by firing a corresponding ray
recreates the 1813 battle between the English and the French into the scene and sampling whatever it may hit. While the
in San Sebastian. Researchers developed an interactive sys- former is generally faster, especially using the hardware ac-
tem based on AR and VR technologies for recreational and celeration on modern graphics cards, it is easier to achieve
educational applications with tourist, cultural and socio- effects such as reflections using ray-tracing. Although the
economical contents, the prototype for which was presented flexibility of modern GPUs can allow ray-tracing [PBMH02]
at the Museo del Monte Urgull in San Sebastian. in real-time [HSHH07, Shi06], as well as fast ray-tracing
now becoming possible on processors used in games con-
soles [BWSF06], rasterisation is currently still the standard
3.3. Advanced Rendering Techniques
technique for computer games.
One of the most important elements of the creation of in-
Although the modern graphics pipeline is designed and
teractive virtual environments is the visual representation
optimised to rasterise polygonal geometry, it should be noted
of these environments. Although serious games have de-
that other types of geometry exist. Surfaces may be de-
sign goals that are different from those of pure entertain-
fined using a mathematical representation, while volumes
ment video games, they can still make use of the wide va-
may be defined using ‘3D textures’ of voxels or, again, us-
riety of graphical features and effects that have been devel-
ing a mathematical formula [EHK∗ 06]. The visualisation of
oped in recent years. The state-of-the-art in this subject area
volumetric ‘objects’, which are usually semi-opaque, is a
is broad and, at times, it can be difficult to specify exactly
common problem that includes features such as smoke, fog
where the ‘cutting edge’ of the development of an effect lies.
and clouds. A wide variety of options exist for rendering
A number of the techniques that are currently in use were
volumes [EHK∗ 06, CPCP∗ 05], although these are generally
originally developed for offline applications and have only
very computationally expensive and it is common to emu-
recently become adopted for use in real-time applications
late a volumetric effect using simpler methods. This often
through improvements in efficiency or hardware. Here, the
involves drawing one or more rectangular polygons to which
‘state-of-the-art’ for real-time lags several years behind that
a four-channel texture has been applied (where the fourth, al-
for offline – good examples of this would be raytracing or
pha, channel represents transparency) – for example a cloud
global illumination, which we shall briefly examine. A num-
element or wisp of smoke. These may be aligned to always
ber of effects, however, are developed specifically for imme-
face the viewer as billboards [AMHH08], a common game
diate deployment on current hardware and can make use of
technique with a variety of uses [WP05], or a series of these
specific hardware features – these are often written by hard-
may be used to slice through a full volume at regular in-
ware providers themselves to demonstrate their use or, of
tervals. An alternative method for rendering full volumes is
course, by game developers. Other real-time graphical fea-
ray-marching, where a volume is sampled at regular inter-
tures and effects can be considered to follow a development
vals along a viewing ray, which can now be implemented
cycle, where initially they are proven in concept demonstra-
in a shader [CNLE09], or on processors that are now being
tions or prototypes, but are too computationally expensive to
used in games consoles [KJ09].
implement in a full application or game. These are usually
developed by academics or blue-sky research departments It is sometimes required to render virtual worlds, or ob-
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
jects within worlds, that are so complex or detailed that they framebuffer according to its fourth colour component (al-
cannot fit into the graphics memory, or even the main mem- pha). The primary difficulty with this technique is that the
ory, of the computer – this can be especially true when deal- results are order dependent, which requires the scene ge-
ing with volume data. Assuming that the hardware cannot ometry to be sorted by depth before it is drawn and trans-
be further upgraded, a number of options exist for such ren- parency can also present issues when using deferred shading
dering problems. If the scene consists of many complex ob- [FM08]. A number of order-independent transparency tech-
jects at varying distances, it may be possible to adopt a level- niques have been developed, however, such as depth-peeling
of-detail approach [EHK∗ 08] and use less complex geome- [Eve01, NK03].
try, or even impostors [AMHH08], to approximate distant
objects [SM06]. Alternatively, if only a small sub-section
of the world or object is in sight at any one time, it may
be possible to hold only these visible parts in memory and
‘stream’ replace them as new parts come into view, which
is usually achieved by applying some form of spatial parti-
tioning [CNLE09]. This streaming approach can also be ap-
plied to textures that are too large to fit into graphics mem-
ory [MG08]. If too much is visible at one time for this to
be possible, a cluster of computers may be used, where the
entire scene is often too large for a single computer to hold
in memory but is able to be distributed among the cluster
with the computers’ individual renders being accumulated
and composited together [HHN∗ 02] or each computer con-
trolling part of a multi-screen tile display [YJSZ06]. Figure 8: Achieving a mirror effect by rendering the geom-
etry twice [AM07].
3.3.1. Post-Processing Effects
One important category of graphical effect stems from the Mirrored background reflections may be achieved using
ability to render to an off-screen buffer, or even to multiple an environment map [BN76, WP05], which can be a simple
buffers simultaneously, which can then be used to form a but effective method of reflecting a static scene. If the scene
feedback loop. A polygon may then be drawn (either to ad- is more dynamic, but relatively fast to render, reflections on
ditional buffers or to the visible framebuffer) with the previ- a flat surface may be achieved by drawing the reflective sur-
ously rendered texture(s) made available to the shader. This face as transparent and mirroring the entire scene geometry
shader can then perform a variety of ‘post-processing’ ef- about the reflection surface, drawing the mirrored geome-
fects. try behind it (Figure 8) or, for more complex scenes, using
Modern engines frequently include a selection of such reduced geometry methods such as impostors [TI06]. Alter-
effects [Fei07], which can include more traditional image natively, six cameras can be used to produce a dynamic en-
processing, such as colour transformations [Bur05a, Bjo04], vironment map [Bly06]. Alternative methods have also been
glow [JO04], or edge-enhancement [ND03], as well as tech- developed to address the lack of parallax, i.e. apparent mo-
niques that require additional scene information such as tion offsets due to objects at different distances, which are
depth of field [Gil07, ZCP07], motion blur [Ros08] and oth- missing in a fixed environment map [YYM05].
ers which will be mentioned in specific sections later. Perhaps surprisingly on first note, simple refraction ef-
The extreme of this type of technique is deferred shad- fects can be achieved using very similar techniques to those
ing, where the entire lighting calculations are performed as used for reflection. The only differences are that the sample
a ‘post-process’. Here, the scene geometry is rendered into a ray direction points inside the object and that it is bent due
set of intermediate buffers, collectively called the G-buffer, to the difference in refractive indices of the two materials,
and the final shading process is performed in image-space in accordance with Snell’s Law [AMHH08]. Thus, environ-
using the data from those buffers [Koo08]. ment mapping can be used for simple refractions in a static
scene, which may be expanded to include chromatic disper-
3.3.2. Transparency, Reflection and Refraction sion [FK03]. In some cases, refraction may also be achieved
as a post-processing effect [Wym07].
The modern real-time graphics pipeline does not deal with
the visual representation of transparency, reflection or re-
3.3.3. Surface Detail
fraction and their emulation must be dealt with using spe-
cial cases or tricks. Traditionally, transparency has been The simplest method of adding apparent detail to a sur-
emulated using alpha blending [AMHH08], a compositing face, without requiring additional geometry, is texture map-
technique where a ‘transparent pixel’ is combined with the ping. The advent of pixel shaders means that textures can
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
now be used in more diverse ways to emulate surface detail point format, although it should be noted that a performance
[Ros06, WP05, AMHH08]. penalty usually occurs when using more precise formats.
A variety of techniques exist for adding apparent high- One of the most striking visual effects associated with
resolution bump detail to a low-resolution mesh. In normal HDR lighting is bloom, where extremely bright patches ap-
mapping [Bli78] the texture map stores surface normals, pear to glow. Practically, this is usually applied as a post-
which can then be used for lighting calculations. Parallax process effect in a similar way to a glow effect, where bright
mapping [KTI∗ 01] uses a surface height map and the cam- patches are drawn into a separate buffer which is blurred and
era direction to determine an offset for texture lookups. Re- then combined with the original image [Kaw04, Kaw03].
lief texture mapping [OBM00, WP05] is a related technique This can also be applied to low-dynamic-range images, to
which performs a more robust ray-tracing of the height map make them appear HDR [Sou05].
and can provide better quality results at the cost of perfor-
mance. Modern displays still use the traditional 8-bit per colour
component format (with a few exceptions [SHS∗ 04]), so
the HDR floating point results must be converted, which is
3.3.4. Lighting the process of tonemapping [RWPD06]. Some tonemapping
The old fixed-function graphics pipeline supported a methods allow the specification of a brightness, or exposure
per-vertex Gouraud lighting model [OSW∗ 07], but pro- value as taken from a physical camera analogy. In an envi-
grammable shaders now allow the developer to imple- ronment where the brightness is likely to change dramati-
ment their own lighting model [Ros06, Hof06]. In general, cally this exposure should be automatically adjusted – much
though, the fixed-function lighting equation is split into: a like a real camera does today. Various methods are available
diffuse component, where direct lighting is assumed to be to achieve this, such as by downsampling the entire image to
scattered by micro-facets on the surface; a specular com- obtain the average brightness [Kaw04], or by asynchronous
ponent, which appears as a highlight and is dependent on queries to build a basic histogram of the brightness level to
the angle between the viewer and the light; and an ambient determine the required exposure [MGM06, SH07].
component, which is an indirect ‘background’ lighting com-
ponent due to light that has bounced off other objects in the 3.3.4.3. Indirect Lighting: Global Illumination
scene [AMHH08]. Incident light on a surface can originate either directly from
a light source, or indirectly from light reflected by another
3.3.4.1. Shadows surface. Global illumination techniques account for both of
Although the graphics pipeline did not originally support these sources of light, although in such methods it is the indi-
shadows, it does now provide hardware acceleration for tex- rect lighting component that is usually of most interest and
ture samples of a basic shadow map [AMHH08, EHK∗ 08]. the most difficult to achieve. The main difficulty is that in
However, this basic method suffers from aliasing issues, is order to render a surface patch, the light that is reflected
typically low resolution and can only result in hard shadow by all other surface patches in the scene must be known.
edges. Except in certain conditions, the majority of shadows This interdependence can be costly to compute, especially
in the real world exhibit a soft penumbra, so there is a desire for dynamic scenes, and although indirect lighting accounts
within computer graphics to achieve efficient soft shadows, for a high proportion of real world illumination, the com-
for which a large number of solutions have been developed putational cost of simulating its effects has resulted in very
[HLHS03, Bav08]. Shadowing complex objects such as vol- limited use within real-time applications. [DBB03]
umes can also present issues, many of which have also been The simplest inclusion of indirect lighting is through pre-
addressed [LV00, HKSB06, RKH08]. computed and baked texture maps, which can store anything
from direct shadows or ambient occlusion results to those
3.3.4.2. High-Dynamic-Range Lighting from radiosity or photon mapping [Mit07]. However, this
HDR Lighting is a technique that has become very popular technique is only viable for completely static objects within
in modern games [She06, EHK∗ 08]. It stems from the fact a static scene. Another simple global illumination technique,
that real world luminance has a very high dynamic range, which is commonly associated with HDR lighting, is image-
which means that bright surface patches are several orders based lighting [RWPD06]. Here, an environment map stores
of magnitude brighter than dark surface patches – for exam- both direct and indirect illumination as a simple HDR im-
ple, the sun at noon “may be 100 million times brighter than age, which is then used to light objects in the scene. The im-
starlight” [RWPD06]. In general, this means that the 8-bit age may be captured from a real-world location, drawn by an
integers traditionally used in each component of the RGB artist as an art asset or generated in a pre-processing stage by
triplet of pixels in the framebuffer, are woefully inadequate sampling the virtual environment. Multiple samples can then
for representing real luminance ranges. Thankfully, modern be used to light a dynamic character as it moves through the
hardware now allows a greater precision in data types, so that (static) environment [MMG06]. Although the results can be
calculations may be performed in 16 or even 32-bit floating- very effective, image-based lighting cannot deal with fully
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
dynamic scenes without having to recomputed the environ- takes place. Combs and Ardoint [CA04] state that a popu-
ment maps, which may be costly. lar method for the implementation of game AI is the use of
an ‘environment-based programming style’, i.e. the creation
Fully dynamic global illumination techniques generally
of the virtual game world followed by the association of AI
work on reduced or abstracted geometry, such as using discs
code with the game world and the entities that exist in it.
to approximate the geometry around each vertex for am-
This means that the AI entity intelligence is built around and
bient occlusion [SA07, HJ08b]. It is also possible to per-
is intrinsically linked to the virtual game environment. This
form some operations as a post-process, such as ambient oc-
type of entity intelligence can be created using ‘traditional’
clusion [Mit07] and even approximations for single-bounce
methods for ‘decision making’, ‘path finding’ and ‘steering’.
indirect lighting [RGS09]. The general-purpose use of the
GPU has also allowed for radiosity at near real-time for very Of the three common AI tasks named above, ‘decision
small scenes [CH05] and fast, but not yet real-time, photon making’ most strongly implies the use of intelligence. Finite
mapping [PDC∗ 03]. The latter technique can also be used state machines (FSMs) are the most commonly used tech-
to simulate caustics, which are bright patches due to con- nique for implementing decision making in games [FH04].
vergent rays from a refractive object, in real-time on the They arrange the behaviour of an AI entity in logical states
GPU [KBW06], although other techniques for specifically – defining one state per possible behaviour – of which only
rendering caustics are also possible [WS03], including as an one, the entity’s behaviour at that point in time, is active at
image-space post-process effect [Wym07]. any one time. In game FSMs each state is usually associated
with a specific behaviour and an entity’s actions are often
implemented by linking behaviours with pre-defined anima-
3.4. Artificial Intelligence tion cycles for the AI entity that allow it to enact the selected
Another important aspect of the creation of populated virtual behaviour [Ork06]. It is relatively simple to program a very
environments as used in cultural heritage applications is the stable FSM that may not be very sophisticated but that “will
creation of intelligent behaviour for the inhabitants of the get the job done”. The main drawback of FSMs is that they
virtual world, which is achieved using artificial intelligence can become very complex and hard to maintain, while on the
(AI) techniques. other hand the behaviour resulting from a too simple FSM
can easily become predictable. To overcome this problem
It is important to understand that when we refer to the sometimes hierarchical FSMs are used that break up com-
AI of virtual entities in virtual environments, that which we plex states into a set of smaller ones that can be combined,
refer to is not truly AI – at least not in the conventional allowing the creation of larger and more complex FSMs.
sense [McC07] of the term. The techniques applied to vir-
tual worlds, such as computer games, are usually a mixture In recent years, there has been a move towards performing
of AI related methods whose main concern is the creation decision making using goal-directed techniques to enable the
of a believable illusion of intelligence [Sco02], i.e. the be- creation of nondeterministic behaviour. Dybsand describes
haviour of virtual entities only needs to be believable to con- this as a technique in which an AI entity “will execute a se-
vey the presence of intelligence and to immerse the human ries of actions ... that attempt to accomplish a specific objec-
participant in the virtual world. tive or goal” [Dyb04]. In its simplest form, goal-orientation
can be implemented by determining a goal with an embed-
The main requirement for creating the illusion of intelli- ded action sequence for a given AI entity. This action se-
gence is perception management, i.e. the organisation and quence, the entity’s plan, will then be executed by the entity
evaluation of incoming data from the AI entity’s environ- to satisfy the goal [Ork04a]. Solutions that allow for more
ment. This perception management mostly takes the form diverse behaviour can improve this by selecting an appropri-
of acting upon sensor information but also includes commu- ate plan from a pre-computed ‘plan library’ [Eva01] instead
nication between or coordination of AI entities in environ- of using a built-in plan. More complex solutions use plans
ments which are inhabited by multiple entities which may that are computed dynamically, i.e. ‘on the fly’, as is the
have to act co-operatively. The tasks which need to be solved case with Goal-Oriented Action Planning (GOAP) [Ork04a].
in most modern virtual world applications such as computer In GOAP the sequence of actions that the system needs to
games and to which the intelligent actions of the AI entities perform to reach its end-state or goal is generated in real-
are usually restricted to (by convention rather than technol- time by using a planning heuristic on a set of known values
ogy) are [And03]: which need to exist within the AI entity’s domain knowl-
edge. To achieve this in his implementation of GOAP, Orkin
• decision making
[Ork04b] separates the actions and goals, implicitly integrat-
• path finding (planning)
ing preconditions and effects that define the planner’s search
• steering (motion control)
space, placing the decision making process into the domain
The exact range of problems that AI entities within a com- of the planner. This can be further improved through aug-
puter game have to solve depends on the context in which menting the representation of the search space by associating
they exists and the virtual environment in which the game costs with actions that can satisfy goals, effectively turning
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
the AI entity’s knowledge base into a weighted graph. This not entail the definition of explicit behaviour models. Lerner
then allows the use of path planning algorithms that find the et al. [LCD07] manually track pedestrians from an input
shortest path within a graph as the planning algorithm for video containing real world behaviour examples. They use
the entity’s high-level behaviour [Ork06]. This has the addi- this data to construct a database of pedestrian trajectories for
tional benefit of greater code re-use as the planning method different situations. At runtime, the database is queried for
for high-level decision making, as well as path planning is similar situations matching those of the simulated pedestri-
the same and can therefore be executed by the same code ans: the closest matching example from the database is se-
module [Ork04b] if the representations of the search space lected as the resulting trajectory for each pedestrian and the
are kept identical. The most popular path planning algorithm process is repeated.
used in modern computer games is the A* (A-Star) algo-
rithm [Sto00, Mat02, Nar04], a generalisation of Dijkstra’s Lee et al. [LCHL07] simulate behaviours based on aerial-
algorithm [Dij59]. A* is optimal, i.e. proven to find the op- view video recordings of crowds in controlled environments.
timal path in a weighted graph if an optimal solution exists A mixture of manual annotation and semi-automated track-
[DP85], which guarantees that AI entities will find the least ing provides information from video about individuals’ tra-
costly path if such a solution exists within the search space. jectories. These are provided as inputs to an agent movement
model that can create crowd behaviours of a similar nature
Challenges in game AI that are relevant to serious games to those observed in the original video.
include the construction of intelligent interfaces [LC04],
such as tutoring systems or virtual guides, and particularly Human perception of the animation of crowds and char-
real-time strategy game AI, part of which is concerned with acters has been increasingly recognised as an important fac-
the modelling of great numbers of virtual entities in large tor in achieving more realistic simulations. Research has
scale virtual environments. Challenges there include spa- been conducted regarding the perception of animation and
tial and temoral reasoning [Bur04], which can be addressed motion of individuals [RP03, MNO07], groups and crowds
through the use of potential fields [HJ08a]. [PEMO08, EPO08]. For example, [PEMO08] examined the
perceptual plausibility of pedestrian orientations and found
3.4.1. Crowd Simulation that participants were able to consistently distinguish be-
tween those virtual scenes where the character orientations
The AI techniques described in the previous section are im- matched the orientations of the humans in the corresponding
portant tools with which more complex systems can be con- real scenes and those where the character orientations were
structed. A domain of great potential relevance to cultural artificially generated, according to a number of different rule
heritage that is derived from such techniques is the simu- types.
lation of crowds of humanoid characters. If one wishes to
reconstruct and visualise places and events from the past, A key factor of differentiation between crowd control
a crowd of real-time virtual characters, if appropriately at- methods concerns where knowledge is stored in the system.
tired and behaving, can add new depths of immersion and One approach is to endow knowledge separately to indi-
realism to ancient building reconstructions. These charac- vidual characters, an extreme example of which would cre-
ters can feature merely as a backdrop [CUCT04] to add life ate autonomous agents that have their own artificial percep-
to a reconstruction, or can assume the centre stage in more tions, reasoning, memories, etc with respect to the environ-
active roles, for example, as virtual tour guides to direct ment, as in [LD04]. Another method is to place knowledge
the spectator [DeL99]. Indeed, the type of crowd or char- into the environment itself, to create a shared or partially-
acter behaviour to be simulated varies greatly with respect shared database accessible to characters. According to this
to the type of scenario that needs to be modelled. In this smart object methodology [PDMNO03], graphical objects
vein, [UT02] model crowd behaviour of worshippers in a are tagged with behavioural information and may inform,
virtual mosque, while [MHY∗ 07] and [RFD05] focus on the guide or even control characters. Such an approach is ap-
creation of more general pedestrian crowd behaviours, the plicable also to crowd simulation in urban environments.
former for populating a virtual reconstruction of a city re- For example, navigation aids, placed inside the environ-
sembling ancient Rome. ment description, may be added by the designer during
the construction process. These have been referred to as
More general crowd synthesis and evaluation techniques
annotations [DHR98]. The resulting environment descrip-
are also directly applicable to crowd simulation in cultural
tion [FBT99, TD00, PO09] contains additional geometric,
heritage. A variety of different approaches have been taken,
semantic and spatial partitioning information for informing
most notably the use of social force models [HM95], path
pedestrian behaviour, thus transferring a degree of the be-
planning [LD04], behavioural models incorporating percep-
havioural intelligence into the environment. In [Hos02], for
tion and learning [ST05] sociological effects [MT97] and
example, skeletal splines are defined that are aligned with
hybrid models [PAB07].
walkways. These splines, called ribbons, provide explicit in-
The study of real world corpus has also been used as a ba- formation for groups to use, such as the two major directions
sis for synthesising crowd behaviour in approaches that do of travel on the walkway. In addition to environment anno-
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
tation and mark-up, interfaces for managing the definition They have proven popular for the animation of virtual ac-
of crowd scenarios have also been investigated. Crowdbrush tors in computer animation production, where they facili-
[UdHCT04] provides an intuitive way for designers to add tate animation selection [LCL06], i.e. the choice of appro-
crowds of characters into an environment using tools anal- priate animation sequences that fit the environment. Other
ogous to those found in standard 2D painting packages. It uses of annotations include the storage of tactical informa-
allows designers to paint crowds and apply attributes and tion in the environment for war games and military simula-
characteristics using a range of different tools in real-time, tions [Dar07], which is implemented as sensory annotations
obtaining immediate feedback about the results. to direct the virtual entities’ perception of their environment.
Probably the most common form of annotations found in
3.4.2. Annotated Entities and Environments real-time simulated virtual environments affects behaviour
selection, usually in combination with animation selection
A fairly recent method for enabling virtual entities to interact
[Ork06], i.e. the virtual entity’s behaviour and its visual rep-
with one another as well as their surroundings is the use of
resentation (animation) are directed by the annotated objects
annotated worlds. The mechanism for this, which we refer to
that it uses.
using the term ‘Annotated Entities’, has been described us-
ing various names, such as ‘Smart Terrain’ [Cas02], ‘Smart Virtual entities that inhabit these annotated worlds can be
Objects’ [PDMNO03, Ork06] and ‘Annotated Environment’ built utilising rule-based system based on simple FSMs in
[Doy02], all of which are generally interchangeable and combination with a knowledge interface based on a trigger
mostly used with very similar meanings, although slight dif- system that allows the entities to ‘use’ knowledge (instruc-
ferences in their exact interpretation sometimes remain. A tions) for handling the annotated objects. The interaction
common aspect to all of the implementations that utilise this protocol employed to facilitate the communication between
mechanism is the indirect approach to the creation of believ- entity and ‘smart’ object needs to enable the object to ‘ad-
able intelligent entities. vertise’ its features to the entities and then allow them to re-
quest from the object relevant instructions (annotations) on
The idea of annotated environments is a computer ap-
its usage [Mac00]. The success of this technique is demon-
plication of the theory of affordance (or affordance theory)
strated by the best-selling computer game The Sims, where
[COST03] that was originally developed in the fields of psy-
‘Smart Objects’ were used for behaviour selection to great
chology and visual perception. Affordance theory states that
effect. Forbus and Wright [FW01] state that in The Sims all
the makeup and shape of objects contains suggestions about
game entities, objects as well as virtual characters, are im-
their usage. Affordance itself is an abstract concept, the im-
plemented as scripts that are executed in their own threads
plementation of which is greatly simplified by annotations
within a multitasking virtual machine. A similar approach,
that work like labels containing instructions which provide
based on a scripting language that can represent the be-
an explicit interpretation of affordances. Transferred into the
haviours of virtual entities, as well as the objects that the
context of a virtual world, this means that objects in the envi-
can interact with, has been presented more recently by An-
ronment contain all of the information that an AI controlled
derson [And08]. These scripting-language based approaches
entity will need to be able to use them, effectively making
are most likely to provide solutions for the creation of large
the environment ‘smart’.
scale virtual environments, such as the serious game compo-
A beneficial side effect of this use of ‘annotated’ objects nent of the Rome Reborn project. This is the automatic gen-
[Doy99] is that the complexity of the entities is neutral to eration of AI content [Nar07], which in combination with
the extent of the domain knowledge that is available for their techniques such as procedural modelling of urban environ-
use, i.e. the virtual entities themselves can not only be kept ments [VAW∗ 09], will require the integration of the creation
relatively simple, but they do not need to be changed at all of complex annotations with the procedural generation of
to be able to make use of additional knowledge. This al- virtual worlds, automating the anchoring of virtual entities
lows for the rapid development of game scenarios [COST03] into their environment.
and if all annotated objects use the same interface to provide
knowledge to the world’s entities then there is no limit to the
scalability of the system, i.e. the abilities of AI controlled 4. Conclusions
entities can practically be extended indefinitely [Ork02] de-
The success of computer games, fuelled among other factors
spite a very low impact on the system’s overall performance.
by the great realism that can be attained using modern con-
Furthermore, this method provides an efficient solution to
sumer hardware, and the key techniques of games technol-
the ‘anchoring problem’ [CS99] of matching sensor data to
ogy that have resulted from this, have given way to new types
the symbolic representation of the virtual entity’s knowledge
of games, including serious games, and related application
as objects in the world themselves have the knowledge as to
areas, such as virtual worlds, mixed reality, augmented real-
how other virtual entities can interact with them.
ity and virtual reality. All of these types of application utilise
Annotations have been employed in several different core games technologies (e.g. 3D environments) as well as
types of applications in order to achieve different effects. novel techniques derived from computer graphics, human
c 2009. This work is licensed under the creative commons attribution 3.0 Unported License. creativecommons.org
Anderson et al. / Serious Games in Cultural Heritage
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